14 Historical Wounds That Continue to Shape China’s Foreign Policy

2. The Opium Wars

In the mid-19th century, Britain’s military interventions compelled China to accept opium imports, leading to significant social and economic upheaval. The First Opium War (1839-1842) and the Second Opium War (1856-1860) resulted in China’s defeat and the signing of unequal treaties, including the Treaty of Nanking and the Convention of Peking. These conflicts underscore a powerful narrative about foreign exploitation and laid the foundation for lingering distrust of Western intentions. For more details, refer to the Britannica article on the Opium Wars (britannica.com).