4. Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia (1812)
In 1812, Napoleon Bonaparte’s Grande Armée, comprising over 600,000 soldiers, advanced into Russia, aiming to compel Tsar Alexander I to adhere to the Continental System. The Russian forces, under General Mikhail Kutuzov, employed scorched-earth tactics, retreating deeper into their vast territory and burning resources to deny the French supplies. The pivotal Battle of Borodino on September 7 resulted in heavy casualties on both sides but failed to deliver a decisive victory. On September 14, Napoleon entered Moscow, only to find the city largely abandoned and set ablaze by retreating Russians. Facing the onset of the harsh Russian winter and lacking adequate provisions, Napoleon ordered a retreat on October 19. The withdrawal was disastrous; the Grande Armée faced relentless attacks from Russian forces, starvation, and freezing temperatures. By the time the remnants of the army crossed the Berezina River in late November, fewer than 100,000 soldiers remained. The campaign ended in December, marking a significant turning point in the Napoleonic Wars (britannica.com).
