SPQR: The Men Who Made and Secured the Roman Republic

15. The Roman Republic’s Legacy

More than 2000 years after its collapse, the Roman Republic’s impact can still be felt. Among other things, many of the Republic’s legislative and legal structures were codified in the Napoleonic Code, still followed in large part in most of Europe and much of the world. Additionally, the Republic’s ethos of public service and devotion to duty and the common good survive as ideals of what government service is or ought to be. Throughout the Enlightenment and into the modern era, political thinkers and reformers, in both the Old World and New, repeatedly drew on Roman Republican ideals.

14. The Roman Republic’s Founder

Lucius Junius Brutus (flourished 6th century BC) was the legendary founder of the Roman Republic. In a twist of fate, he was also the ancestor of Marcus Junius Brutus, a leader of the group that assassinated Julius Caesar, the dictator who brought the Republic to an end. This early Brutus organized and led a rebellion that ousted Rome’s last monarch, after which Brutus was elected to the new republic’s first consulship – Rome’s highest office. It all began in 509 BC, in an era when Rome was still ruled by kings, and had been for generations. That year Sextus Tarquinus, son of Rome’s King Lucius Tarquinus Superbus, forced himself upon a noblewoman, Lucretia. That set in motion a chain of events that ended the Roman Monarchy, and birthed the Roman Republic.

13. The “Dullard”

Tradition has it that Lucretia told her family members and other gathered Romans what the king’s son had done to her. Then, to preserve family honor and prove to all that she had not been a willing participant, Lucretia stabbed herself to death. Until then, Brutus, a nephew of King Tarquinus Superbus, had given little sign of potential greatness – the name Brutus is Latin for “Dullard”. He had his own grievances against the king, who had executed Brutus’ brother, and it is possible that Brutus played the part of the dimwit to avert his uncle’s suspicions. Whatever the case, it all changed on the day of Lucretia’s death. Brutus pulled the knife out of her breast, vowed revenge, and led a popular revolt against the king.

12. End of the Monarchy, and Birth of the Republic

By 507 BC, the monarchy was done with, and Rome had been transformed into a republic, with Brutus as its first chief magistrate. He epitomized the ideal of devotion to duty and severe impartiality in its fulfillment: he condemned his own sons to death when they joined a conspiracy to restore the kings. Tradition holds that he was killed during a battle against a royal army, in single combat with a son of the king whom Brutus had ousted. He is credited with establishing many of basic institutions of the Roman Republic, which lasted for about half a millennium before it collapsed and was done away with by Julius Caesar and Augustus. Many of Brutus’ Republican institutions continued for centuries more, in altered and reduced form, as emperors strove to at least pay lip service to the republican facade.

11. An Early Hero of the Republic

Titus Herminius Aquilinus (died 498 BC) was one of the early Roman Republic’s heroes. He participated in the major conflicts that accompanied the founding and securing of the new republic, rose to high office, and was elected consul in 506 BC. His greatest achievement for which he was most lauded was a heroic stand at a bridge in the face of an invading army. After his ouster in 509 BC, Rome’s last monarch, Tarquinus Superbus, sought the aid of Lars Porsena, king of nearby Clusium. Porsena marched on Rome at the head of a mixed army of Clusians and Roman royalist exiles. In 508 BC, the invaders routed the infant republic’s forces opposite Rome, and sent them fleeing across the Sublician Bridge into the city, which lay defenseless.

10. A Heroic Trio’s Stand on a Bridge

Lars Porsena’s forces were halted at the narrow Sublician Bridge by three courageous Romans: Titus Herminius Aquilinus, Publius Horatius Cocles (“One-eyed – so nicknamed after he lost an eye in battle”), and a Spurius Lartius. The trio held off the enemy long enough for the bridge to be destroyed behind them. When the bridge was about to collapse, Herminius and Lartius were urged by Horatius to retreat, while he fought on alone until the bridge fell. Herminius and Lartius were elected consuls in 506 BC. In 498 BC, war broke out with Rome’s Latin neighbors, and Herminius was one of the generals in the army that marched out to deal with them. When the forces met at the Battle of Lake Regillus in 498 BC, Herminius slew the enemy’s leader in single combat. However, as he stripped the corpse of its armor, Herminius was mortally wounded by a javelin.

9. One of the Republic’s Most Admired Men

Lucius Quintius Cincinnatus (519 – 430 BC) was one of the Roman Republic’s most admired figures. He was elected Rome’s consul in 460 BC, and was twice appointed dictator, in 458 and 439 BC. He became legendary for his selfless devotion to the Republic during crises in which he assumed power when thrust upon him to deal with grave problems, then surrendered it when the crises were over. Cincinnatus was a conservative patrician and a capable general who opposed the plebeians’ demands for a greater share of power. He ended up on the losing side of that fight. Then, to make things worse, his son killed a plebeian and fled Rome. Political opponents of Cincinnatus held him accountable for his son’s crime, and impoverished him with a huge fine.

8. Continued Devotion to the Republic, Despite Great Grievances

By the time Cincinnatus had liquidated enough assets to pay the heavy fine, his possessions were reduced to a small farm, and he was reduced to manual labor at an advanced age, forced to toil in his fields with his own hands. Then a military emergency erupted in 458 BC. That led to his appointment as dictator – a constitutional office of absolute power to which Romans appointed a leader during crises for a six month period. When a delegation arrived to let him know, they found Cincinnatus hard at work in his farm. He put aside the plow and took up the sword, and led the Romans to a swift victory. He then resigned the dictatorship and went back to toiling on his small farm.

7. An Inspirational Figure Over the Millennia and Into the Modern Era

Cincinnatus was appointed dictator again in 439 BC when Rome was threatened with an internal conspiracy, which he put down. Once again, he laid down his power as soon as the crisis was over and returned to his farm. He went down as one of the most revered figures of the Roman Republic, and as an exemplar of civic virtue, modesty, and outstanding leadership. Centuries later, George Washington consciously sought to model his career after that of Cincinnatus. That comparison resonated with contemporaries during the Age of the Enlightenment, who knew their Roman history well. When America’s first president and first great general voluntarily laid down his power at the end of his second term and went into retirement, he was hailed as a “Second Cincinnatus”.

6. The Man Who Saved the Republic From Hannibal

Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (circa 280 – 203 BC) was a Roman statesman and general. His cautious delaying tactics and strategies against the Carthaginian general Hannibal earned Fabius the nickname Cunctator, or “the Delayer”. They also saved Rome when it was reeling from a string of humiliating defeats, and gave it time to recover its equilibrium and gird itself for a difficult war. Hannibal had led an army into Italy at the start of the Second Punic War (218 – 201 BC) and won a series of crushing victories against the Roman Republic. The defeats threatened Rome’s hold on Italy, as allies joined Hannibal or declared neutrality. Fabius by then was a respected senior statesman who had been elected Consul in 233 and 228 BC, as well as Censor – a highly prestigious position – in 230 BC. Faced with a dire emergency, the Romans appointed him dictator for six months.

5. The “Delayer”

Fabius realized that Rome had no general at the time – including himself – who was Hannibal’s equal as a battlefield commander. So he adopted an attrition strategy that came to be known as “Fabian”. Fabius shadowed the Carthaginian, refusing to offer pitched battle, and gradually whittled the enemy’s strength with scorched earth tactics, coupled with attacks against his supplies and isolated detachments. That stabilized the situation, but it was resented by many Romans, who began to call Fabius Cunctator, or “Delayer”. It was intended as an insult, with connotations of cowardice. In hindsight, though, it became a badge of honor.

4. Saving the Republic From Catastrophe

When Fabius’ six-month-term as dictator ended, his countrymen ditched his delaying tactics, and opted for a showdown fight. They amassed 87,000 men, the biggest Roman army to date, and marched off to crush Hannibal. He was eager to let them try. At Cannae in 216 BC, Hannibal adopted a brilliant tactical plan, lured the eager Romans into a double envelopment, and destroyed them. Of 87,000 Romans, only 10,000 escaped – all the rest were slaughtered or captured. There were no more snide comments and sneers, and Cunctator became an honorific instead of an insult. Fabius was elected consul three more times before his death in 203 BC, and his Fabian strategy became the official one followed by Rome for much of the remainder of the war, which was finally won in 201 BC. Fabius did not live to see the victory, but he laid the groundwork leading to it.

3. The Man Who Finally Beat Hannibal

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (236 – 183 BC), so named because of his military victories in Africa, was one of Rome’s greatest generals and strategists. He is best known for his conquest of Carthage’s territories in Iberia during the Second Punic War (218 – 201 BC), and for defeating Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC to close out the conflict with victory. Scipio’s first mention in the historic record dates to 218 BC, when he led a cavalry charge that saved his father, one of that year’s consuls, from encirclement by Carthaginians. He survived the disaster at Cannae two years later, when Hannibal nearly wiped out a Roman army 87,000 strong. Scipio was one of the few Roman officers to keep their wits about them and cut their way to safety with 10,000 men. The sole survivors, they formed the nucleus of a reconstituted Roman army.

2. The Republic’s Young General

In 211 BC, Scipio’s father and uncle were defeated and killed fighting Hannibal’s brother in Hispania. In elections for a new proconsul to lead an army to avenge the defeat, Scipio was the only candidate for a position seen as a death sentence by many. Only twenty five, Scipio was underage to be legally elected proconsul. So a special law was enacted to give him command. He opened the campaign with a surprise attack in 209 BC that captured New Carthage (modern Cartagena), the Carthaginian seat of power in Hispania. That secured at a stroke ample supplies, as well as a great harbor and base for further operations. Scipio then campaigned across Hispania, winning a series of victories. By 206 BC, he had wrested all of Hispania from the enemy. He then returned to Rome as its most successful general to date, and was elected consul in 205 BC.

1.     Ingratitude as Reward

By 205 BC, Hannibal was isolated in southern Italy, cutoff from supplies and reinforcements. Dismissing him, Scipio boldly took the war directly against Carthage by invading North Africa in 204 BC. The Carthaginians recalled Hannibal from Italy to take command of their armies at home, setting the stage for a climactic showdown between Rome’s and Carthage’s greatest generals. It came at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, in which Scipio won a complete victory that ended the war. Scipio returned to a hero’s welcome. However, while lionized by the general public, Scipio was hated by fellow patricians who persecuted him with trumped up charges of treason, bribery, and general corruption in order to sully his reputation. The ingratitude left him disillusioned and bitter, and led to his withdrawal from public life and retirement to his estates in Campania, where he remained until his death in 183 BC.

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Where Did We Find This Stuff? Some Sources and Further Reading

Beard, Mary – SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (2015)

Cornell, Tim – The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome From the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (2012)

Goldsworthy, Adrian – In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire (2016)

History Collection – ‘Magic Eyeliner’, and Other Fascinating Ancient Beliefs and Facts

Livy – History of Rome, Book 1

Livy – History of Rome, Book 2

Livy – History of Rome, Book 3

Plutarch – Parallel Lives: Fabius