Let My People Go! – The History and Historicity of the Biblical Account of the Exodus

19. The Exodus as a Foundational Myth

The annual Jewish celebration of Passover commemorates and emphasizes the significance of Exodus. However, ancient origin stories, like those found in many cultures, often blend history, legend, and theology. Which begs the question: How much, if any, of Exodus is historically true? Historians look to Egypt’s political and cultural landscape in the second millennium BC.

The most commonly proposed timeframes are circa 1446 BC, based on a literal reading of 1 Kings 6:1, which places the Exodus 480 years before Solomon’s temple; and circa 1250 BC, based on archaeological clues and the biblical reference to the city of Ramesses, linked to Pharaoh Ramesses II. The thirteenth century BC date aligns with Egypt’s New Kingdom period, a time of extensive building, military conquest, and a city named Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta – possibly the “store city” built by Israelite slaves in Exodus 1:11.

18. Sources of the Biblical Narrative

The Hebrew Bible is the Exodus narrative’s primary source. Key elements include the Israelites’ enslavement in Egypt; Moses’ divine calling through the burning bush; the Ten Plagues inflicted upon Egypt; the Israelites’ departure and miraculous crossing of the Red Sea; the giving of the Law at Mount Sinai; and the forty-year journey through the wilderness to Canaan.

The text presents Exodus as a real historical event with theological significance, and positions it as the pivotal moment in the formation of Israel as a nation chosen by God. Modern biblical scholarship sees the Pentateuch, the Bible’s first five books, as a composite work, written and redacted over centuries. Many scholars believe the Exodus story was fully shaped during or after the Babylonian exile, in the sixth century BC. That period of displacement may have inspired a theological narrative of liberation and covenant, that was then projected back into an earlier era.

17. The Historic Context at the Time of the Biblical Narrative

To evaluate the historicity of the Exodus, it is crucial to understand the context of ancient Egypt, which maintained one of the ancient world’s most robust civilizations. Egypt’s history in the second millennium BC is divided into several key periods.

There was the Middle Kingdom, circa 2055 – 1650 BC; the Second Intermediate Period, circa 1650 – 1550 BC, when the Hyksos ruled northern Egypt; the New Kingdom, circa 1550 – 1070 BC, Egypt’s imperial zenith; and the Third Intermediate Period, circa 1070 – 664 BC. The New Kingdom period, particularly the 13^th and 19^th Dynasties, e.g.; the reigns of Seti I and Ramesses II, is often suggested as the most likely historical backdrop for the Exodus if it actually occurred.

16. Archaeological Evidence and its Limitations

There is a conspicuous lack of direct archaeological evidence to confirm the Exodus narrative. No Egyptian texts mention the Israelites by name or describe events that resemble the Exodus. Some have linked the Israelites to the Habiru, a term found in Egyptian and Mesopotamian texts, that refers to stateless people or mercenaries.

However, the connection remains speculative. Also, a migration of hundreds of thousands as described in the Bible would have left archaeological traces like encampments, waste, tools, and inscriptions. No such traces have been found in the Sinai Peninsula dated to the time of the supposed Exodus. Then there is the conquest of Canaan. The biblical account describes a rapid and violent conquest by the Israelites. Archaeological data, however, suggest a more gradual infiltration, and sites mentioned in the Bible, like Jericho and Ai, do not show destruction layers that match the biblical timeline.

15. What Archaeological Evidence Has Been Found?

Archaeologists have not found evidence to support the Exodus account. There is no support for a large-scale Hebrew population in Egypt, nor of a mass exodus of hundreds of thousands. Archaeologists have not found campsites or occupation layers in Sinai from this period. A forty-year encampment of a large population, as described in the Bible, would have left remains, but none have been discovered.

Nor have archaeologists found evidence of a swift and destructive conquest of Canaan as described in the Bible. For example, the Bible recounts the dramatic conquest of Jericho, but archaeology shows that Jericho was sparsely populated or abandoned at the time. Also, Egypt kept detailed records, yet no document mentions Hebrew slaves or a mass exodus. To be fair, Egyptians rarely documented defeats, but the silence is significant. As a result, many scholars are skeptical about the literal truth of the Exodus story.

14. Alternative Theories: The Hyksos Expulsion Theory

The absence of evidence casts doubt on the Exodus as a single historical event. However, some scholars propose that it may preserve historical memories. The biblical Exodus describes the Israelites’ dramatic escape from Egypt under the leadership of Moses – a foundational story of liberation central to Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions.

But despite its importance, the historicity of the Exodus has long been debated. One of the most enduring theories that tries to ground the Exodus in actual historical events is the Hyksos Expulsion Theory. As seen below, it suggests that the biblical story may be a cultural memory or reinterpretation of the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt in the sixteenth century BC.

13. Who Were the Hyksos?

The Hyksos were Semitic-speaking peoples who migrated into Egypt and eventually rose to power during the Second Intermediate Period, circa 1650 – 1550 BC. Their name comes from the Egyptian term heqa khasut, meaning “rulers of foreign lands.” The Hyksos established the 15^th Dynasty and ruled from the city of Avaris in the eastern Nile Delta, which they developed into a major administrative and trade center.

The Hyksos were traditionally depicted as violent invaders, but modern archaeology shows that they probably rose to prominence gradually, taking advantage of a weakened central government. They adopted many aspects of Egyptian culture, including religious practices and royal titles. However, they maintained some distinctive cultural traits from the Levant, such as Canaanite deities and architectural styles.

12. Expulsion of the Hyksos

Hyksos rule ended in the reign of Ahmose I, founder of the 18^th Dynasty, who expelled them from Egypt around 1550 BC. Egyptian texts describe Ahmose’s conquest of Avaris, and his pursuit of the fleeing interlopers into southern Canaan. The Hyksos expulsion was significant both politically and symbolically, as it marked the reassertion of native Egyptian control after more than a century of foreign rule.

The Egyptians portrayed the event as a triumphant expulsion of alien oppressors, and it became a defining moment in the formation of the powerful New Kingdom. Several scholars have proposed that memories of the Hyksos expulsion formed the basis for the biblical Exodus story, which was likely written centuries later. The Israelites may have been part of the Semitic populations associated with the Hyksos, or the Exodus narrative may reflect a reworked cultural memory of their expulsion.

11. Parallels Between the Expulsion of the Hyksos and the Biblical Account of the Exodus

Both the Hyksos and Israelites were Semitic peoples with ties to the Levant. The Hyksos capital at Avaris is in the same region where the Bible situates the Israelites – Exodus 1:11 mentions cities like Pithom and Rameses. The Hyksos were forcibly expelled from Egypt, and the Israelites are said to have fled after a series of plagues.

Both groups ultimately ended up in the Levant – the Hyksos in southern Canaan, and the Israelites in what became Israel. Such similarities have led scholars such as Manfred Bietak, the archaeologist who excavated Avaris, and Jan Assmann, a cultural historian, to propose that the Exodus might be a reversed version of the Hyksos expulsion – a transformation of the historical oppressors into the oppressed.

10. Egyptian Accounts

Support for the Hyksos Expulsion Theory also comes from Manetho, a third century BC Egyptian priest and historian, whose writings are preserved in fragments by later historians such as Josephus. According to Manetho, a group of leprous, impure people were expelled from Egypt and settled in Jerusalem.

Josephus, writing in the first century AD, linked this account to the Exodus and vigorously defended the Jewish account against Manetho’s negative portrayal. Some scholars argue that Manetho’s story is a distorted Egyptian memory of the Hyksos expulsion, perhaps merged with later Egyptian experiences of Semitic foreigners. If so, it supports the idea that Egyptian and Israelite traditions preserved different versions of the same event.

9. Arguments Against the Hyksos-Exodus Link

Despite the parallels, some scholars caution against equating the Hyksos expulsion with the biblical Exodus. The Hyksos were expelled around 1550 BC, but the earliest possible dates for the Exodus, based on biblical and archaeological data, are several centuries later. Such a significant gap suggests that if the Exodus is based on the Hyksos expulsion, it is a long-distance cultural memory, not a direct historical record. Also, the Bible describes the Israelites as slaves who flee their captors.

The Hyksos, however, were ruler expelled by native Egyptians. This reversal of roles complicates attempts to draw a straight line between the two narratives. Finally, little direct evidence links the Hyksos and Israelites. The archaeological record does not show a Hyksos migration turning into Canaan’s early Israelite population. Most scholars now believe that the early Israelites emerged from within Canaanite society, rather than arrived as external invaders or migrants.

8. A Memory Transformed?

Despite the objections above, many scholars believe the Hyksos expulsion may have contributed to the mythic memory that became the Exodus. The idea is that stories of Semitic foreigners being driven out of Egypt persisted in both Egyptian and Levantine traditions. Later Hebrew writers reflected on their identity and experiences of oppression such as the Babylonian exile, and reinterpreted memories of the Hyksos expulsion through a theological lens.

The result was a narrative that emphasized divine deliverance, lawgiving, and covenant, and transformed a political expulsion into sacred history. That fits with how ancient peoples often remembered and reshaped their past – not necessarily with historical accuracy, but with profound cultural and religious meaning.

7. A Compelling Perspective

The Hyksos Expulsion Theory offers a compelling lens through which to view the Exodus, not as a literal historical account, but as a story rooted in transformed memories of real events. The Israelites were not the Hyksos, and the biblical story does not exactly mirror Egyptian history.

However, the expulsion of the Hyksos may have left a trace in regional memory, that later influenced the formation of the Exodus narrative. As such, the theory does not “prove” the Exodus happened. However, it helps explain how stories of past migrations, conflicts, and displacements, could evolve into one of the most powerful liberation narratives in human history.

6. Mixed Origins and Social Revolutions

Another theory is that some Israelites may have originated in Egypt, while others were Canaan natives. Exodus could reflect the collective memory of a minority group that migrated from Egypt and later merged with Canaanite natives. Over time, the smaller group’s story became central to the national narrative. Yet another theory is Social Revolution in Canaan. It argues that Israel did not invade Canaan from without, but emerged from within: a revolt of Canaanite peasants against city-state elites.

Exodus could be a later theological construct retrojecting a story of divine liberation onto earlier socio-political transformations. The Merneptah Stele, an Egyptian inscription, circa 1207 BC, offers tantalizing evidence. It contains the earliest non-biblical reference to “Israel”, describing it as a people settled in Canaan. The reference implies that some group called Israel existed by the late thirteenth century BC. However, the stele says nothing about Egypt or an exodus.

5. The Theological and Literary Significance of Exodus

Regardless of its historicity, Exodus is a masterful literary composition and a deeply theological narrative. Themes of liberation, justice, covenant, and faith dominate the text. The themes of God’s concern for the oppressed and demand for ethical conduct were revolutionary in the ancient Near East. The story also serves a political function: it legitimizes Moses’ authority, Israel’s special status, and the worship of Yahweh alone.

Scholars widely agree that the Exodus story’s final form emerged during or after the Babylonian exile of the sixth century BC, when the Israelites again faced displacement and sought to reaffirm their identity. In that context, the Exodus narrative provided a powerful metaphor of hope and divine fidelity during periods of crisis.

4. Minimalist vs Maximalist Views

Biblical scholarship today is divided into minimalist and maximalist camps when it comes to the Exodus account’s historicity. Maximalist scholars give the biblical text a presumption of historical reliability, unless contradicted by external evidence. Some argue for a late thirteenth century BC Exodus in the reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II. They argue that although there is no evidence that supports Exodus, future discoveries may yet confirm that it had actually happened.

Minimalist scholars treat the Bible primarily as literature and cultural expression, and require independent corroboration for historical claims. They argue that the Exodus is largely a literary construct, with little or no basis in historical events. They point to the lack of external corroboration, and anachronisms in the text. A middle position is also popular: that while the biblical story is not literally true, it is not wholly invented. Rather, it probably blends history, myth, and memory.

3. Exodus as Cultural Memory

Egyptologist Jan Assmann views Exodus as cultural memory – a foundational story that shapes identity, values, and worldview, regardless of its historicity. Like other origin myths, it offers meaning and coherence in the face of suffering and displacement. As such, Exodus matters because of what it means, not how it happened. It underpinned religious rituals, political liberation movements, and ethical reflections across centuries. “Did the Exodus happen?” cannot be answered with a definitive yes or no.

The story, as told in the Bible, is not supported by archaeological or textual evidence. However, elements of the narrative may echo real historical experiences of migration, oppression, and deliverance. They might have been the expulsion of the Hyksos, the memories of Semitic laborers in Egypt, or the identity struggles of a small people in Canaan. Whatever its origin, the Exodus story probably reflects a mosaic of historical fragments, woven into a powerful theological narrative.

2. The Significance of the Biblical Narrative

The Exodus narrative has profoundly shaped how millions understand freedom, justice, and divine purpose. As both myth and memory, it continues to resonate far beyond the borders of ancient Egypt and Israel. The biblical narrative of the Israelites’ enslavement in Egypt, their dramatic liberation under Moses, and their eventual journey to the Promised Land, is a foundational story in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

For millennia, it shaped religious identity, moral paradigms, and cultural memory. Yet, from a historical and archaeological perspective, the question remains: did the Exodus happen as described in the Hebrew Bible? While the biblical account remains a deeply influential religious narrative, its historical accuracy has been debated by historians, archaeologists, and theologians.

1. Theological vs Historical Truth

For many believers, the truth of the Exodus narrative lies not in its literal historicity, but in its theological and moral significance. Such tension between theology and history is not unique to Exodus: many cultures have origin stories that function more as mythic truths than literal history. The Exodus account’s historicity is unresolved, and probably unresolvable.

Most scholars today adopt a middle position: first, there may have been a small-scale migration of Semitic peoples from Egypt into Canaan. Second, the biblical narrative reflects later theological concerns and memory, not documentation of historic facts. Third, the Exodus story is best understood as a symbolic narrative rooted in various historical, cultural, and religious experiences. Ultimately, regardless of its historicity, the Exodus account’s enduring significance is undeniable. It has inspired generations to fight for justice, freedom, and faith, securing its place not just in sacred scripture, but also in humanity’s moral imagination.

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Where Did We Find This Stuff? Some Sources and Further Reading

Assmann, Jan – The Price of Monotheism (2009)

Baden, Joel S. – The Book of Exodus: A Biography (2019)

Dever, William G. – Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? (2006)

Finkelstein, Israel, and Silberman, Neil Asher – The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts (2002)

Grabbe, Lester L. – Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It (2017)

History Collection – Facts About Ancient Egypt They Didn’t Teach in School

Lemche, Niels Peter – Early Israel: Anthropological and Historical Studies on Israelite Society Before the Monarchy (1985)

Moore, Megan Bishop, and Kelle, Brad E. – Biblical History and Israel’s Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History (2011)