Historic Catastrophes: Tales of Tragedy and Unforgettable Disaster

A Corporation’s Decision to Skimp on Safety Got Thousands Killed

Union Carbide also cut corners in the maintenance of the MIC storage tanks and pipes at the Bhopal plant. Over the years, there were numerous leaks that killed and injured dozens of workers. By early December, 1984, the plant was a disaster waiting to happen. One of three MIC storage tanks was out of commission, pipes and valves were corroded, most safety systems were out of order, and special vents to scrub poison gasses were inoperative. In 1981, Indian journalist Rajkumar Keswani began to examine the safety protocols and procedures at the plant after a friend died there in an industrial accident.

Aided by whistle blowers, Keswani examined that and earlier mishaps, and discovered that things horrifically bad. There had been repeated screw-ups in which only dumb luck averted disaster. In one incident, a gas leak forced thousands of nearby residents to flee their homes in fear. Union Carbide’s Indian manager sought better pipe coating from the parent company in America. In one of the more callous replies in corporate history, he was told that it would be too expensive.

Warnings of Impending Disaster Went Unheeded for Years

After a nine-month investigation, Keswani published the first of a series of newspaper articles that ran from 1982 to 1984. In them, he detailed dismal safety standards at the plant, and raised the alarm about a potential disaster. They had blunt headlines, such “Save Please, Save this City“; “Bhopal Sitting on the Brink of a Volcano“; and “If You Don’t Understand, You All Shall be Wiped Out. Like a modern Cassandra, however, Keswani’s warnings were ignored. Then, on the night of December 2^nd, 1984, the disaster he had spent years warning about struck. Around 11PM, December 2^nd, 1984, workers at the Bhopal plant noticed that pressure inside one of the MIC tanks had increased from the normal 2 psi to 10 psi. Half an hour later, the effects of leaking gas were detected.

At 11:45, a leaking pipe was spotted. In the meantime, the pressure in the MIC steadily rose. By 12:40AM, it reached 55 psi, and began venting the toxic gas into the atmosphere. Within two hours, over 40 tons of MIC were released and blown into Bhopal. The methyl isocyanate stayed low to the ground, burned the eyes of victims, made them nauseous, and killed many. Union Carbide’s cost-cutting resulted in about 600,000 people harmed by MIC. 8000 perished within two weeks, and another 8000 died later. About 40,000 suffered serious injuries, and 4000 were permanently disabled. In 1989, Union Carbide paid the equivalent of U$900 million in 2023 dollars to settle litigation. It was about U$1500 per victim, or $15,000 for each of those seriously injured, permanently disabled, or killed.

The Erfurt Latrine Disaster

“The Holy Roman Empire is neither holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire” – Voltaire. In the twelfth century, the Holy Roman Empire might not have been holy or Roman, but it was an empire… of sorts. It was a bewildering patchwork of territories ruled by often-competing nobles and clergy. Counts ruling one area had to watch their backs against neighboring archbishops, who in turn dreaded the machinations of nearby landgraves (the German equivalent of English dukes) with designs on the church’s lands. Unsurprisingly, that unholy jumble of territories and rulers bred conflict.

Holy Roman emperors could not keep feuds from flaring up, so they often settled for trying to at least keep the conflicts from getting out of control. In 1184, a feud between Archbishop Konrad I of Mainz and Landgrave Ludwig III of Thuringia threatened to destabilize the empire – beyond its usual level of instability. So King Heinrich VI called a meeting at the city of Erfurt to try and hash things out. The peace conference ended in disaster, when dozens of nobles and prominent clergymen were drowned to death liquid excrement.

\When Dozens of Bigwigs Drowned in Excrement

Heinrich VI invited key nobles and clergymen from across the Holy Roman Empire to meet for a peace conference at the city of Erfurt. Dozens of bigwigs from across the empire answered his call, and on July 25^th, 1184, they gathered at a meeting room in Erfurt’s Church of Saint Peter. Their numbers included a Count Heinrich I of Schwarzburg, who was often given to emphasizing his determination to do something by stating: “If I fail, may I die in excrement!”

Beneath the church meeting room where the empire’s greatest assembled in all their finery, was the monks’ latrine. Unfortunately, the room was not structurally sound. No sooner did the meeting begin than the supporting beams holding the floor gave way, and the gathered bigwigs plummeted into the liquid excrement below. Dozens died, either from drowning in the fecal pool, or from the collapsed structure. They included Count Heinrich I, who met his end just as he had often said: drowned in shit.

A Radiation Disaster in Brazil

In 1985, the Goiania Institute of Radiotherapy, a private chemotherapy clinic about half a mile from the administrative center of Goiania, Brazil, moved offices. It left behind outdated hospital machines and supplies that were not needed in the new location. Among the items left behind was a teletherapy treatment device that used caesium-137, a highly radioactive isotope. Legally, the authorities should have been notified and careful disposal methods should have been followed. Disaster ensued when the clinic failed to do any of that.

The abandoned building was occupied by homeless people, and morphed into a hangout for drug addicts and derelicts. The abandoned teletherapy device and its caesium-137 contents were thus totally unsecured. On September 13^th, 1987, two scavengers came across the teletherapy unit. They did not know what it was, but figured it might have scrap metal value. So they removed the source assembly – which contained the radioactive isotope – from the machine’s radiation head. It was a start of a tragic nuclear incident.

Two Idiot Scavengers

The scavengers, Wagner Mota Pereira and Roberto dos Santos Alves, took the device’s source assembly in a wheelbarrow back to Alves’ home, where they tried to dismantle it. They found it extremely difficult to get the thing open. The next day, Pereira experienced diarrhea and dizziness, and his left hand began to swell. He went to a clinic, where his symptoms were diagnosed as an allergic reaction to something he ate, and he was told to rest at home. In the meantime, Alves persisted with the attempts to open the device.

Finally, on September 16^th, 1987, after three days, he managed to puncture it with a screwdriver. Inside, he found a glowing blue substance and scooped some of it out. He thought that it might be gunpowder and tried to light it on fire. It didn’t ignite. Two days later, he sold the device to Devair Alves Ferreira, the owner of a nearby scrapyard. Fascinated by the glowing blue substance inside the punctured device, Ferreira figured it might be not just valuable, but outright supernatural, so he took it to his house. Disaster was inevitable.

A Radiation Disaster That Contaminated Hundreds

Devair Alves Ferreira invited family and friends to check out the teletherapy device’s mysterious contents, and shared several grains of the glowing stuff with them. His brother took some of the luminescent dust to his home, where he spread it on the concrete floor. His six-year-old daughter, fascinated by the substance, coated her body in it, and ate an egg contaminated with it. On September 25^th, 1987, Ferreira sold the device to a second scrapyard. In the meantime, his wife, who had become seriously ill, realized that many people around her had also sickened. She began to suspect that the glowing blue stuff as a cause.

She recovered the device from the second scrapyard on the 28^th, and took it to a hospital. There, the caesium-137 radioactivity was finally detected. When news spread, about 130,000 panicked locals swarmed hospitals, afraid that they might have been irradiated. Eventually, 250 people were discovered to have been contaminated. Of those, twenty suffered radiation sickness, and four died. The fatalities included Ferreira’s wife and six-year-old niece. The two original scavengers who had kicked off the disaster both lost limbs to amputation. A cleanup operation was required in which the topsoil was removed from several sites, while various houses were demolished and all their contents were incinerated.

Prohibition’s Bootleggers and Industrial Alcohol

America saw a rise in the consumption of alcohol in the mid-1920s, despite Prohibition. The law was openly flouted, with too many speakeasies to count let alone raid, supplied by bootleggers who acted with impunity. So the federal authorities went after a key source of the illegal booze: the still legal industrial alcohol stocks. Industrial alcohol is undrinkable, but bootleggers had figured out ways to make it fit for human consumption. So in 1926, the federal authorities mandated that the amount of harmful chemicals in industrial alcohol be greatly increased. Disaster ensued. In that year’s Holiday Season, emergency rooms across the country saw an unprecedented spike in alcohol poisonings. By New Year’s Eve, 1926, New York City alone saw many fatalities. As the city’s medical examiner put it:

“The government knows it is not stopping drinking by putting poison in alcohol. It knows what bootleggers are doing with it and yet it continues its poisoning processes, heedless of the fact that people determined to drink are daily absorbing that poison … Knowing this to be true, the United States government must be charged with the moral responsibility for the deaths that poisoned liquor causes, although it cannot be held legally responsible“. Alcohol is always near us. Even for those who don’t drink or keep booze at home, alcohol is found as an additive in their fuel tanks, and many household products such as nail polish, disinfectants, hand sanitizers, and perfumes contain alcohol. In 1906, the authorities mandated the addition of chemicals to industrial alcohol, to make it undrinkable.

The US Government’s Decision to Deliberately Poison Alcohol Harmed Thousands

Denatured alcohol, also known as “wood spirits,” is industrial alcohol adulterated with chemicals to make it undrinkable. This practice emerged as a response to liquor taxes imposed on drinkable alcohol, providing a legal exemption for manufacturers. Prohibition disrupted the supply chain of regular drinkable alcohol, leading bootleggers to steal and re-distill industrial alcohol, making it America’s primary source of liquor by the mid-1920s. The US Treasury Department attempted to deter this practice by revamping denaturing formulas, adding toxins such as acetone, quinine, formaldehyde, nicotine, camphor, chloroform, zinc, iodine, kerosene, and gasoline.

The most dangerous addition was at least 10% methyl alcohol or methanol, commonly used in antifreeze, resulting in a public health disaster. Contaminated alcohol led to numerous illnesses and deaths, prompting debates on the morality of deliberate poisoning by the authorities. Some viewed it as “legalized murder,” while defenders blamed bootleggers for selling labeled poison for human consumption. Prohibitionists considered the harm to drinkers an acceptable consequence, emphasizing the goal of creating a sober society.

A Disaster That Wiped Out Half a City

The devastating Wanggongchang Explosion of 1626 in Beijing unfolded at the heart of the Wanggongchang Armory, a vital facility producing weapons and ammunition for Ming China. The explosion, resonating far beyond the immediate destruction, claimed approximately 20,000 lives and obliterated half of Beijing. With a workforce of 70 to 80 individuals, the armory’s importance in maintaining the defense and military readiness of Ming China was paramount. Unfortunately, little consideration was given to protecting the city from the potential dangers posed by the gunpowder factories strategically placed within its walls.

The catastrophic consequences of the explosion extended beyond the immediate devastation. The Wanggongchang Armory, one of China’s largest weapons factories, housed the nation’s primary arms and munitions stockpile. The incident marked a critical juncture in Ming China’s history, occurring amidst a backdrop of internal strife, corruption, and natural disasters. Viewed as a sign of divine displeasure and punishment for the emperor’s perceived incompetence, the Wanggongchang Explosion played a significant role in hastening the Ming Dynasty’s decline. Eighteen years later, the dynasty succumbed to defeat, paving the way for the rise of the Qing Dynasty.

The Rich Folk Club That Got Thousands Killed

Industrialist Henry Clay Frick and other Pittsburgh magnates bought the South Fork Dam, an earthen dam that formed an artificial Lake Conemaugh in Cambria County, Pennsylvania, in 1880. Originally built by the Commonwealth to service a canal system, the dam was abandoned when railroads superseded canals, and was sold to private interests. Frick and his fellows formed the South Fork Hunting and Fishing Club, a private resort for the wealthy based around the dam’s lake and shoreline. The club opened in 1881, and its well-heeled members mingled in its clubhouse and their cottages around the lake as they enjoyed the pleasures of nature.

The club lowered the dam to accommodate a road. To make sure that that the lake never ran out of fish, a screen was placed in the spillway – a structure that allows controlled release of water from a dam. However, the screen did not just stop fish from leaving the dam: it also trapped debris that clogged the spillway. That was especially bad because when the dam was built, it had a system of relief pipes and valves to lower water levels in an emergency. That system was sold as scrap metal, and never replaced. Between that and the clogged spillway, there was no way to release water in case of an emergency. Such an emergency occurred on May 31^st, 1889, and it killed thousands in what came to be known as the Johnstown Flood, after the chief town struck by the disaster.

A Nineteenth Century Disaster in Pennsylvania

Western Pennsylvania experienced the heaviest rainfall ever recorded there in late May, 1889, when up to 10 inches fell in a 24-hour period. As Lake Conemaugh’s water levels rose ominously on May 31^st, the South Fork Hunting and Fishing Club’s manager led laborers in frantic efforts to unclog the dam’s spillway. They were unsuccessful, and attempts to dig a new spillway also failed. Around 2:50 PM, the dam, which contained nearly four billion gallons of water, began to collapse. A wall of water thirty to forty feet high and as wide as the Mississippi River rushed downstream at speeds of up to forty miles per hour, and destroyed all in its path. The torrent sucked people from their homes, swept trains, and slammed massive piles of debris into bridges and buildings.

2209 people were killed in the disaster, including 400 children. Bodies were found as far away as Cincinnati, 400 miles away. More than 1600 homes were demolished, and the damage was around $5 billion in current dollars. It was America’s deadliest non-hurricane flood. As the shock wore off, it was replaced by anger as people’s gazes turned towards those responsible. However, the private resort’s rich owners were never held accountable. They claimed that their modifications of the dam made no difference because they had only lowered it by one foot, and their lawyers argued that the flood was “an act of God”. Evidence emerged in 2013 that they had actually lowered the dam by three feet, which drastically increased the risk of a breach. That came too late for the victims: they lost every case brought against the resort’s owners, who walked off scot-free.

Yet Another Catastrophe in Mao’s China

Bad as the Johnstown Flood was, its destructiveness paled in comparison to this next disaster, the Banqiao Dam Collapse. The toxic fruits of Mao’s Great Leap Forward continued to inflict misery upon China for many years, long after it was wrapped up. While the program was still a going concern, Mao’s government had what was on its face a good idea: build a series of dams, to retain water and provide hydroelectricity. They were built with the help of Soviet experts, but in what turned out to be a bad idea, costs and time were cut by cutting corners on safety – especially flood control safety. A chief engineer blew the whistle on the danger, but he was ignored, accused of lacking communist zeal, and exiled. One of those dams was constructed at Banqiao, on the Ru River in Henan.

It stood 387-feet-high, and had a storage capacity of 17.4 billion cubic feet. The dam was rated to withstand “a thousand-year flood”, that is it was deemed safe against any flood other than one so severe that odds were that it would happen only once in a millennium. It took considerably less than a millennium for such a flood to arrive. A dam strong enough to withstand anything but a fluke thousand-year flood was sound in theory. As it turned out, however, planners had either miscalculated what a thousand-year flood was, or Mao’s China was simply unlucky. Either way, in early August, 1975, Typhoon Nina struck, stalled over the Banqiao Dam area, and produced flooding double the anticipated thousand-year-level maximum. Even then, what came to be known as The Banqiao Dam Disaster could have been averted if not for incompetence and poor communications.

A Dam Disaster That Killed Hundreds of Thousands

On August 6^th, 1975, as water levels rose in Banqiao’s reservoirs, officials requested authority to open the dam to relieve the pressure. They were turned down because of ongoing flooding downstream. The request was finally approved the following day, the 7^th, but the telegram failed to reach Banqiao. In the early hours of August 8^th, the water crested a foot above the dam’s wave protection wall, and it collapsed. The resultant Banqiao Disaster was history’s worst structural failure. The Banqiao Dam was one of 62 dams that collapsed because of Typhoon Nina. When it gave way, it released almost sixteen billion cubic meters of water. They produced a wave 6.2 miles wide and 10 to 23 feet high, that rushed downstream at 31 miles an hour. It left a swath of devastation 9.3-miles-wide and 34-miles-long.

The collapsed dam unleashed history’s third deadliest flood ever, devastated thirty cities and counties, inundated three million acres, and destroyed almost seven million houses. Over ten million people were impacted, and the death toll might have been as high as 240,000. The disaster occurred at the tail end of Mao’s regime and his Cultural Revolution. That was yet another bad idea that produced years of turmoil, because Mao wanted to retain power by getting rival communist factions to fight each other, and leave him as arbitrator. China’s government did its best to hide the extent of the disaster. Solid information – or as solid as governmental information ever gets in China – did not emerge until the 1990s. The extent of the disaster finally came to light when a former Minister of Water Resources wrote a preface for a book, in which details were revealed for the first time.

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Where Did We Find This Stuff? Some Sources and Further Reading

Association of State Dam Safety Officials – Case Study: Banqiao Dam (China, 1975)

Atlantic, The, December 2^nd, 2014 – Bhopal: the World’s Worst Industrial Disaster, 30 Years Later

China Project – A 17^th-Century Mushroom Cloud: The Wanggongchang Explosion

Daily Beast – How the US Government Enforced Prohibition by Poisoning Americans

Daily Beast – The Giant Space Rock That Wiped Out Biblical Sodom

Encyclopedia Britannica – Sodom and Gomorrah

Fortweekly, The, April, 2018 – Curio #1: The Erfurt Latrinensturz

Gizmodo – China’s Worst Self-Inflicted Environmental Disaster: The Campaign to Wipe Out the Common Sparrow

History Collection – Historic Military Blunders That Will Make You Feel Better About Your Own Mistakes

History Network – How America’s Most Powerful Men Caused America’s Deadliest Flood

International Atomic Energy Agency – The Radiological Accident in Goiana

Irish Examiner, June 21^st, 1875 – The Great Fire in Dublin. Thirty Five Houses Destroyed

Irish Times, August 3^rd, 2016 – The Night a River of Whiskey Ran Through the Streets of Dublin

McCullough, David G. – The Johnstown Flood (2004)

New York Times, December 11^th, 1984 – Indian Journalist Offered Warning

Science, New Series, Vol. 238, No. 4830 (Nov 20, 1987) – Radiation Accident Grips Goiana

Science Times – Erfurt Latrine Disaster

Scientific Reports, 11, Article Number: 18632 (2021) – A Tunguska Sized Airburst Destroyed Tall el-Hammam, a Middle Bronze Age City in the Jordan Valley Near the Dead Sea

Slate – The Chemists’ War

Timeline – The Deadliest Structural Failure in History Might Have Killed 170,000, and China Tried to Cover it Up

Time Magazine, January 14^th, 2015 – The History of Poisoned Alcohol Includes an Unlikely Culprit: The US Government

Vox – The US Government Once Poisoned Alcohol to Get People to Stop Drinking

Weather Underground – The Deadliest Weather-Related Catastrophe You’ve Probably Never Heard Of

World of Chinese – The Blast That Nearly Destroyed Beijing