The Harlem Renaissance transformed American culture from the 1910s through the 1940s, giving birth to artistic expressions that continue to resonate today. From art and music to fashion and novels, this African American intellectual and cultural revival centered in Harlem created a new Black identity, challenging the nation to reexamine its racial perspectives during a time of profound social change.
40. The Great Migration Begins (1916)
Southern blacks began fleeing Jim Crow oppression during World War I for northern industrial opportunities. By 1920, over 500,000 African Americans had moved north, with nearly 200,000 settling in Harlem. These newcomers paid premium rents ($40-100 monthly) for small apartments, often working factory jobs for $2-5 daily wages while bringing southern cultural traditions that would transform the urban landscape.
39. “The New Negro” Movement Takes Shape (1917)
Hubert Harrison’s “The New Negro Movement” called for racial pride, self-reliance, and political equality. His Liberty League and newspaper “The Voice” promoted education and economic advancement as paths to freedom. This movement emerged when streetcars cost 5¢, newspapers 2¢, and most African Americans lived in brownstone buildings or tenements with shared bathrooms, creating the community connections that fostered cultural exchange.
38. James Weldon Johnson Becomes NAACP Leader (1918)
As the first Black executive secretary of the NAACP, Johnson transformed the organization while writing his anonymous novel “The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man.” During his decade-long leadership, Johnson advocated against lynching and legal discrimination while supporting artistic development. African Americans typically earned 50-60% of white wages during this period, with racial tension escalating as returning Black WWI veterans demanded equality.
37. The Red Summer of Racial Violence (1919)
Over 25 race riots erupted across America as Black veterans returned from WWI expecting equality. In Chicago, a Black teenager floating near a white beach sparked violence, resulting in 38 deaths. This widespread brutality strengthened resolve among Harlem intellectuals to fight racism through cultural achievement while highlighting the dangerous contradiction of fighting for democracy abroad but facing oppression at home.
36. The “Harlem Hell Fighters” Return as Heroes (1919)
The all-Black 369th Infantry Regiment returned from WWI having fought longer than any American unit and earned numerous honors. Their homecoming parade down Fifth Avenue featured their renowned jazz band led by James Reese Europe. Despite their heroism, many veterans returned to discrimination and violence, with their military uniforms sometimes making them targets while fueling their determination to achieve equality.
35. Marcus Garvey’s UNIA Gains Momentum (1920)
Jamaica-born Marcus Garvey’s Universal Negro Improvement Association reached peak influence with over four million members. His “Back to Africa” movement and Black Star Line shipping company captured imaginations during a time when most household goods cost pennies – bread at 12¢ a loaf and milk at 28¢ a gallon – making his $5 UNIA membership fee a significant but meaningful expense for supporters. He also started publishing the Negro World newspaper.
34. The Shuffle Along Musical Revolution (1921)
This groundbreaking all-Black musical by Eubie Blake and Noble Sissle ran for 504 performances on Broadway, introducing jazz rhythms to mainstream theater. With tickets ranging from 50¢ to $2, the show launched stars like Josephine Baker and Florence Mills while revolutionizing American entertainment. Its success proved Black productions could achieve commercial success while maintaining artistic integrity.
33. Bessie Smith Becomes “Empress of the Blues” (1923)
Smith’s emotional recordings for Columbia Records, beginning with “Down Hearted Blues,” sold at unprecedented rates for a Black female artist. Her raw, powerful vocals captured the pain and resilience of African American experiences, with records priced at 75¢ when daily wages averaged $3-5. At her peak, Smith’s performances at Harlem’s theaters commanded $1500 weekly, making her one of the highest-paid Black entertainers, while her music provided the soundtrack for the Renaissance era.
32. The Cotton Club Opens Its Doors (1922)
This famous Harlem nightclub epitomized the era’s contradictions—it featured the best Black performers like Duke Ellington and Cab Calloway while initially serving exclusively white patrons. Admission cost around $2.50, when average weekly wages were $25-35. The club’s policy of hiring light-skinned chorus girls reflected complex racial dynamics, while its broadcasts spread jazz nationwide.
31. Jean Toomer Publishes “Cane” (1923)
This experimental novel, blending poetry, drama, and narrative, captured the African American experience through modernist techniques. Though initially selling poorly at $2 per copy, “Cane” later became recognized as a masterpiece of American literature. Toomer wrote the work after visiting Georgia, bridging rural southern Black traditions with northern urban intellectual movements through his innovative literary style.
30. Paul Robeson Emerges as a Renaissance Star (1924)
This multitalented performer graduated valedictorian from Rutgers University and Columbia Law School before finding fame in Eugene O’Neill’s “All God’s Chillun Got Wings.” Robeson’s commanding baritone voice and powerful stage presence in productions like “The Emperor Jones” and “Show Boat” broke racial barriers in theater and film. Robeson remained committed to civil rights activism and became one of the Renaissance’s most internationally recognized figures.
29. The Civic Club Dinner Launches Literary Movement (1924)
Publisher Charles S. Johnson’s pivotal dinner gathering showcased Black writers to white publishers and patrons. Attendees included Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen, and Jean Toomer, creating connections that fueled publication opportunities. This networking occurred when telephones cost $3 monthly, telegrams 20¢ per message, and personal introductions remained essential for career advancement across racial lines.
28. The Dark Tower Cultural Salon Established (1925)
A. Philip Randolph’s apartment at 108 West 136th Street became “The Dark Tower,” Harlem’s premier literary salon. Hosted by Regina Anderson and Ethel Ray Nance, these gatherings nurtured emerging talents in an era when Black authors struggled to find publishers. The intimate brownstone setting – with rent around $65 monthly – provided a crucial artistic community when public venues often excluded African Americans.
27. Alain Locke Publishes “The New Negro” (1925)
This groundbreaking anthology declared Black America’s artistic independence and defined the Renaissance’s philosophical foundation. Locke, the first African American Rhodes Scholar, articulated how art could advance racial equality. Priced at $3 (equivalent to $46 today), the book validated Black cultural expression during a time when most teaching positions at Black colleges paid just $1,500-2,000 annually.
26. Aaron Douglas Creates Visual Identity for the Renaissance (1925)
Known as the “Father of Black American Art,” Douglas developed a distinctive visual style combining Art Deco with African motifs. His illustrations for Alain Locke’s “The New Negro” and numerous Crisis magazine covers cost publishers $15-25 per piece but created the movement’s definitive aesthetic. Douglas later founded the Art Department at Fisk University, cementing his educational legacy while his murals at the 135th Street YMCA (commissioned for $2000) visually narrated Black history for the community.
25. The Savoy Ballroom Opens Its Doors (1926)
Known as “The Home of Happy Feet,” the Savoy became Harlem’s premier integrated dance hall. Spanning an entire block with its spring-loaded floor, the venue hosted 700,000 dancers annually at 50¢ admission. Here, the Lindy Hop evolved while bands like Chick Webb’s orchestra established swing music’s dominance during an era when radio ownership jumped from 60,000 to millions of households. Later, Dizzy Gillespie’s orchestra rocked the house.
24. Langston Hughes Publishes “The Weary Blues” (1926)
Hughes’ first poetry collection merged jazz rhythms with verse, revolutionizing American poetry. His poem “The Negro Speaks of Rivers” established him as the Renaissance’s poetic voice. When a typical meal cost 35¢ and suits $15, Hughes initially worked as a busboy at Washington’s Wardman Park Hotel while developing his distinctive style that captured everyday Black experiences.
23. Augusta Savage Opens Harlem Studio (1927)
Despite facing gender and racial barriers, sculptor Augusta Savage established her influential Harlem studio while creating powerful works like “Gamin.” Teaching neighborhood children for free when art education was largely unavailable to Black youth, Savage cultivated the next generation of artists. Her small studio apartment rent consumed nearly half her modest weekly income of $25-35.
22. Duke Ellington’s Orchestra Begins Cotton Club Residency (1927)
During his Cotton Club years, Ellington’s sophisticated compositions transformed jazz from entertainment to a serious art form. Broadcasting nationally via radio when sets cost $35-150, Ellington’s music reached millions, challenging perceptions of Black musicianship. His orchestra members earned $50-75 weekly during an era when most musicians made $15-30, allowing them to maintain apartments in Harlem’s better buildings while elevating jazz to America’s classical music.
21. Claude McKay’s “Home to Harlem” Becomes a Bestseller (1928)
This controversial novel depicting Harlem’s gritty realities became the first commercially successful novel by a Black author during the Renaissance. W.E.B. Du Bois criticized its portrayal of the community, but readers embraced its authenticity. Selling for $2.50 when movies cost 25¢, McKay’s success demonstrated mainstream America’s fascination with Harlem’s vibrant cultural scene.
20. Ethel Waters Breaks Broadway Barriers (1928)
Waters’ journey from vaudeville to Broadway musicals and dramatic roles demonstrated remarkable versatility. Her recording of “Stormy Weather” in the early 1930s became an anthem of the era. At her peak, when household workers made $5-10, Waters earned approximately $1000 weekly, becoming one of the first Black women to star in otherwise white casts on Broadway while maintaining residences in both Harlem and the more exclusive Sugar Hill neighborhood.
19. “Blackbirds of 1928” Revue Takes Broadway (1928)
This all-Black musical revue starring Adelaide Hall, Aida Ward, and Bill “Bojangles” Robinson ran for 518 performances, introducing white audiences to authentic Black entertainment. Its hit song “I Can’t Give You Anything But Love” became a standard. Tickets cost $3-5 when average weekly wages were $25, making the show accessible primarily to white audiences while showcasing Black artistic excellence that challenged Hollywood’s limiting stereotypes.
18. Wallace Thurman Publishes “The Blacker the Berry” (1929)
This controversial novel confronted colorism within the Black community through the experiences of the protagonist, Emma Lou Morgan. Thurman challenged both white racism and internalized prejudice during an era when skin-lightening creams were advertised in Black newspapers for $1-2. His apartment at 267 West 136th Street, nicknamed “Niggerati Manor,” housed numerous Renaissance artists and writers.
17. The Harlem Community Art Center Opens (1929)
This WPA-funded center, directed by Augusta Savage, provided free art education, nurturing talents like Jacob Lawrence and Norman Lewis. When art supplies cost prohibitively much for families earning $800-1,200 annually, this center democratized creative education. Classes are filled immediately with eager students developing artistic skills that will influence American culture for generations.
16. Nella Larsen’s “Passing” Examines Racial Identity (1929)
This psychological novel explores racial “passing” through two mixed-race women making different identity choices. Larsen, a nurse-turned-writer, examined class divides within the Black community during the Jazz Age. Published just before the stock market crash when radio sets cost $35-50, the novel interrogated questions of authenticity when many light-skinned African Americans faced complex choices.
15. The Great Depression Strikes Harlem (1929)
Black workers, already earning half of white wages, suffered disproportionately when the Depression hit. Unemployment reached 50% in Harlem while bread lines formed outside churches. Apartment rents remained high at $40-90 monthly despite falling incomes, creating housing crises. This economic devastation damaged Renaissance patronage networks while inspiring socially conscious art addressing systemic inequality.
14. Louis Armstrong Revolutionizes Jazz Improvisation (1930)
Armstrong’s virtuosic trumpet playing and distinctive vocal style transformed American music after arriving in New York. His Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings, selling for 75¢ when daily necessities like milk cost 28¢ per gallon, established jazz as an improvisational art form. Armstrong’s innovations influenced every musician of the era, while his performances at Harlem’s Savoy Ballroom drew crowds willing to pay 50¢ admission to witness his genius.
13. The Scottsboro Boys Case Sparks Activism (1931)
When nine Black teenagers were falsely accused of rape in Alabama, Harlem activists organized protests and fundraising efforts. The case inspired works like Langston Hughes’ poem “Scottsboro Limited” and Richard Wright’s stories. During this period, a newspaper cost 5¢, enabling widespread information sharing about the case, while Renaissance artists increasingly focused on political activism rather than art for art’s sake.
12. Harlem’s “Don’t Buy Where You Can’t Work” Campaign (1931)
This grassroots economic boycott targeted businesses that profited from Black customers while refusing to hire Black employees. The movement gained momentum when unemployment reached 50% in Harlem. With basic necessities like butter costing 39¢ per pound and eggs 35¢ per dozen, economic justice became inseparable from artistic concerns for Renaissance figures.
11. Fats Waller Defines Stride Piano (1932)
This keyboard virtuoso and composer created the definitive stride piano style that influenced generations of musicians. His compositions like “Ain’t Misbehavin'” earned him royalties of a few cents per copy but became jazz standards. Waller’s Victor recordings, selling for 75¢, showcased his technical brilliance and wit during a period when quality pianos cost $400-700, placing them beyond reach for many aspiring musicians who instead gathered in Harlem rent parties where Waller sometimes played.
10. Billie Holiday Transforms Jazz Vocals at Harlem Clubs (1933)
Holiday’s emotional depth and innovative phrasing revolutionized vocal jazz during her performances at venues like Monette’s Supper Club on 133rd Street. When women’s dresses cost $5-15 and shoes $3-7, Holiday initially earned just $18 weekly before becoming a headliner commanding $250 per week. Her interpretation of “Strange Fruit,” performed at Café Society downtown, brought the brutal reality of lynching to privileged audiences while establishing jazz as a vehicle for social commentary.
9. Zora Neale Hurston Publishes “Jonah’s Gourd Vine” (1934)
Anthropologist-turned-novelist Hurston incorporated authentic Black southern dialect and folklore into her first novel. When most books cost $2-3 and literary magazines 25¢, Hurston balanced anthropological accuracy with literary artistry. She conducted research trips to the South and Caribbean in her second-hand Ford, which cost $200, documenting cultural practices that informed her groundbreaking fiction.
8. The Harlem Riot Erupts (1935)
False rumors about police brutality triggered widespread unrest, resulting in three deaths and millions in property damage. The riot reflected growing frustration with economic inequality when unemployment reached 60% among Harlem residents. Damaged shops had been charging inflated prices – 15¢ for bread that cost 9¢ downtown – highlighting economic exploitation that had fueled community tensions.
7. Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Elected to City Council (1937)
Following in his father’s influential footsteps, Powell Jr. became the first African American elected to New York’s City Council. His campaign grew from his leadership at Abyssinian Baptist Church, which had grown to 14,000 members under his father. Powell’s political rise represented the Renaissance’s evolution toward institutional power, with his campaign costs of approximately $2,000 funded largely through church collections averaging $1000 weekly when most churches collected $50-100.
6. Jacob Lawrence Begins “The Migration Series” (1940)
This groundbreaking 60-panel narrative painting series documented the Great Migration through bold colors and simplified forms. Lawrence created the work in his $19 monthly Harlem apartment using tempera paint, costing about $5 for the entire project. The series captured the historical forces that had created Harlem’s vibrant community when museum admission was typically 25¢.
5. Richard Wright Publishes “Native Son” (1940)
Wright’s explosive novel about Bigger Thomas challenged American racism through its unflinching portrayal of a young Black man’s experiences. Selling 250,000 copies in its first month at $2.50 each, the book demonstrated the commercial potential of serious Black literature. Wright wrote in his small Harlem apartment, where rent consumed nearly one-third of his $25 weekly income from the Federal Writers’ Project.
4. Countee Cullen’s Poetry Captures Renaissance Spirit (1940)
Cullen’s formal verse addressing racial themes garnered critical acclaim through collections like “Color” and “Copper Sun.” As a public school teacher earning approximately $1500 annually, Cullen created poetry that appeared in mainstream publications paying $10-25 per poem. His marriage to W.E.B. Du Bois’ daughter Yolande became a major social event when wedding costs typically ranged from $100 to $500, symbolizing the Renaissance’s blending of artistic and intellectual lineages.
3. Harlem’s Cultural Focus Shifts Toward Civil Rights (1941)
A. Philip Randolph’s March on Washington Movement threatened mass protest unless defense industries integrated their workforces. This activism reflected the Renaissance’s evolution from artistic expression toward direct political action. Congressman Adam Clayton Powell Jr., Harlem’s charismatic political voice, championed these causes in Washington. With World War II beginning and factory jobs paying $25-35 weekly, economic opportunity became the central focus for many Harlem residents.
2. The Apollo Theater’s Amateur Night Continues the Legacy (1943)
Even as the Renaissance formally waned, the Apollo’s Amateur Night showcased emerging talents like Ella Fitzgerald and Sarah Vaughan. Tickets cost 25¢-75¢ when monthly rent averaged $50 and a movie 35¢. The theater remained a cultural cornerstone where Renaissance values of artistic excellence and racial pride continued through the war years into the modern civil rights era.
1. The Harlem Renaissance Legacy Endures (1945)
Though scholars typically mark the Renaissance’s end with World War II, its artistic achievements permanently transformed American culture. The movement’s pioneering artists, writers, and musicians created enduring works while establishing foundations for future civil rights activism. What began with the Great Migration culminated in a powerful legacy of cultural excellence that continues to inspire and illuminate today.